
Qass-L. D \ "1 't>] 

Book . N '- 



JOom//f*men/i c^' 



A COURSE OF STUDY 



FOR 



TEACHERS 



IN THE 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NORTH CAROLINA, 



TOGKTHER WITH 



SUGGESTIONS ON METHODS OF INSTRUCTION: 



STATE BOARD OF EXAMINERS, 
RALEIGH, N. C. 



1898. 



GUY V. BARNES, PRINTER TO THE COUNCIL OF aiATE 
RALEIGH, N. C. 



^/f^Srr 






In Exchange 

Univ. of North Carolina 

OCT 1 2 1933 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Arithmetic 41 

BOTAN\' 46 

Care of School-room 49 

Care of the Eyes 53 

Care of the Teeth 58 

Civics 32 

English Literature 22 

Geography 24 

History 28 

Life Certificates. 60 

Pedagogical Library 49 

Physiology and Hygiene 45 

Punishments 50 

Reading 7 

School Museum 51 

Recess 50 

School-room Suggestions 49 

Spelling 14 

Teaching English 15 

Writing 15 



INTRODUCTION. 



It is the purpose of the State Board of Examiners to help 
especially those teachers who are willing to help them- 
selves. 

Under the various subjects will be found helpful sug- 
gestions not only upon the work in the school-room, but 
also suggestions on private study for the teachers. 

We feel sure that there are many honest, conscientious 
teachers, who are not satisfied with their present qualifi- 
cations for their work, but are not sure just what to do or 
what course to pursue in order to make progress and to bet- 
ter prepare themselves for the school-room and its duties. 
Owing to the multiplicity of books at this time, the aver- 
age public-school teacher is at a loss to know what is best 
for him, when he needs a book on any special subject. 

The State Board of Examiners has suggested under each 
subject books that are among the best. It is not expected 
that the average teacher will purchase all of the books 
on any one subject. If only one can be purchased, we 
think the first one named under a given subject should be 
selected. 

We would like especially to impress upon the teachers 
the importance of making, if necessary, a sacrifice in order 
to have some good educational books. You should study 
the history and the science of education. You should be- 
come acquainted with some of the master minds in the 
teaching profession. Our successful lawyers study law. 
Our successful physicians study medicine. Our success- 
ful business men study business, and no less true is it, 
that our successful teachers study teaching. 

IvCt not any teacher throw aside this book, with the idea 
that it may do some good to teachers who are in the school- 
room for eight or ten months in the year, but for a teacher 
of three or four months work it will be of no service. The 



6 



Subjects were especially prepared with this in mind, that 
the terms are very short, and because the terms are short 
makes it all the more important for the teacher to be pre- 
pared for his work. The shorter the time to teach the 
children the better prepared should be the teacher in 
order for results to be what they should. 

We call especial attention to the suggestions in the 
latter part of this pamphlet. These subjects are passed 
over lightly and sometimes totally disregarded by some 
teachers. The care of the eyes, by Dr. Lewis, should re- 
ceive careful study by our teachers. 

These things are perhaps of more importance in the 
public schools than in private schools. To many children 
the standard or ideal of what is manly and womanly is 
gotten from the school-room. 

We send this pamphlet out trusting that it may be help - 
ful to many of our teachers, that it may be the means of 
infusing life and inspiration in the hearts of . some who 
may have become weary, discouraged and disheartened, 
that it may enable our teachers to more fully realize the 
importance of their work, and most important of all, that 
our teachers may realize that they must study and keep 
■up with their profession, or fall out by the way and make 
room for those who are progressive. 

C. H. MEBANE, Pres. ex officio; 

W. Iv. POTEAT, 

M. C. S. NOBIvE, 

Iv. L. HOBBS, Secretary, 

State Board of Examiners. 



COURSE OF STUDY. 



READING. 



Every pupil in the public schools of our State studies 
reading. One half of the pupils in our country public 
schools never pass beyond the Third Reader, and there- 
fore their teachers should make a special effort to teach 
primary reading in the very best way. Good reading 
means the ability to read not only for one's self but for 
others. Reading for one's self is silent reading; reading 
for others is oral reading or "reading out aloud. " In both 
cases the pupil must get thought from a printed page. 
Oral reading depends upoa the reader's ability to not only 
get thought from the printed page but to call plainly and 
distinctly the words that contain the thought thereon.. 
All reading lessons should finally be "read out aloud" by 
the pupil for the teacher's correction and criticism. Many 
children! come to school unable to pronounce correctly 
the simplest words used by them every day. "Sogie of 
them cannot speak their own names correctly; ^rnith may- 
be Smif; Ethel, Effel; Robert, Wobbet, etc.- Care, then, 
should be taken, at the first, to teach beginners to cor- 
rectly pronounce words in every-day use since they, in 
.the main, constitute the words of the First Reader. 

A spoken word is a combination of elementary sounds.. 
A written word is a combination of letters, or letters and 
diphthongs, which stand for elementary sounds. He who 
can make the sound that a letter or diphthong stands for, 
and knows how to combine into a word the sounds they 
stand for, is able to call at sight that word without the 
teacher's help. When he has this power he has mastered 
the first great difficulty in reading. Until he knows worda- 
at sight, or knows " how to find them out " for himself,. 
he is unable to get thought from the printed page. 

* Moses' Phonic Reader, Pa^re S. 



The teacher's attention is called to the following usual 
aiiethods of teaching reading : 

1. Alphabetic. 

2. Word. 

3. Sentence. 

4. Phonic. 

5. A combination of any two or more of the above. 

The alphabetic method consists of — 

( a ) Having the pupil learn the names of letters so that 
he may call them at sight. 

( /' ) Having the pupil call the names of the letters in a 
word, after which the teacher pronounces the word for him. 

( r ) Having the pupil call the names of the letters in a 
word, and then pronounce by memory the word as it was 
at first pronounced' for him by the teacher. 

The Ai^PHABETic Method. — Of course, the first time 
a pupil calls the nam.es of a letter in a word the teacher 
must tell him "what the}^ spell." For instance, the pupil 
looks at the word "sit' ' and sa3''s ' 'es-i-te, ' ' then the teacher 
saj^s "sit." 

The word method is the alphabetic, method omitting 
the cMling of the names of the letters. The teacher shows 
the word "as a whole and trains the pupil to know it at 
sight without reference to the powers of the letters it con- 
tains. 

"The sentence method begins with sentences rather 
than with letters or words. The thought is expressed first' 
orally, and then the printed or written expression is pre- 
sented and taught." — Rauh. 

THE PHONIC METHOD. 

By the phonic method pupils are taught the sounds of 
the letters and how to combine them into, words thus ac- 
quiring the ability to find out words for themselves with- 
out the aid of the teacher. The following indicates the 
order in which the different steps may be taken : 



9 



{(i) Teach pupils to pronounce correctly simple mono- 
syllabic words used by them in their daily conversation, 
especially those which are to be met with in the future 
lessons of the First Reader. 

(/>) Let the teacher pronounce slowly the elementary 
sounds in a woid and then have the pupils tell the word 
thus pronounced. 

(c) Pronounce a simple monosyllabic word for the 
pupils and have them give the elementary sounds in that 
word, /. c. have pupils to separate a w^ord into its elemen- 
tary sounds. 

(d) Teach pupils the sound each letter stands for, and 
later on the sound each diphthong stands for. 

( e) Have pupils look at each letter in a word, give the 
sound it stands for, and then combine into the correct 
word the sounds thus given. 

The successive steps as above given constitute, in the 
main, the essential features of the phonic method. All 
who have given this method a fair trial are well pleased 
with it. A letter is intended to indicate to the reader that 
a certain somid is to be made, and the phonic method in- 
sists upon teaching the power of a letter. 

Those who use the alphabetic method are finally forced 
to resort to either the phonic method or the word method. 
For instance, suppose the words, fit, bed, fed, fun, sun, 
have been spelled by the pupil and pronounced for him 
by the teacher, he is then sent to his seat and told to 
"study his lesson." In due time he is called up to recite. 
He points to the letters one by one, calls their names, but 
fails to remember the word which a few minutes before 
was pronounced for him by the teacher, and hence comes 
to a standstill. At this point the teacher, to help him, 
either tells him the word at once, or pronounces the initial 
sound of the word which is the sound represented by the 
initial letter. Suppose the word be "fit" and the pupil 
calls the names of the letters, — ef, i, te, and is yet unable 
to give the word. Now the teacher, resorting to phonics, 
gives for him the "f" sound as a hint, next she gives 
slowly and distinctly "f" sound followed by the sound of 



10 



short i, and finally, if the pupil is yet unable to catch the 
word, she gives the "f" soimd, short i sound, and "t" 
sound so clearly and distinctly that the word is at last 
caught by the pupil's ear. In other words she emphasizes 
the second step of the phonic method. It is safe to say 
that the phonic method is the only one by which a pupil 
ever finds out for himself any new word, and then he be- 
comes his own helper in reading. 

No matter what other method a teacher may use with 
beginners, all agree that the sounds of the letters or pho- 
nics must be taught finally. For those who use either the 
alphabetic, word, or sentence method a plan for introduc- 
ing the teaching of phonics is here given. It has been 
often tried with gratifying results. 

The following list of words, or one similar to it, may be 
made from those to be found on the first twenty or twenty- 
five pages of the ordinary First Reader: 

and, boy, cat, dog, fat, girl, hat, it, jump, kite, let, 
me, not, pig, run, see, top, up, very, was, yes. 

In making a list of words the teacher should have refer- 
ence to the alphabetical arrangement of the initial letter, 
should take a word for each letter as soon as found in a 
lesson, and in the case of words beginning with vowels, 
should take those beginning with short sounds only, — as 
and, ever}^ it, ox, up. 

As soon as a word has been learned and adopted as the 
list-word, put it there and place the initial letter some 
distance to the right, show pupils that it is first in the 
word and stands for the first sound in the word. Train 
them to give this first sound by ' 'starting to say" the word. 
Ask them to tell you some words beginning like it, as for 
instance, if the word be "and" you will get such words as 
apple, axe, ant, axle, etc. In this way the sound of short 
"a" or any other letter nia}^ be taught. 

On page 5, Holmes' First Reader, the new words are cut, 
see, rat, I. When pupils reach this page no matter by what 
method, place the three first in the list either upon the 
blackboard or upon stout paper. They may be written or 
printed, as the teacher prefers, but the sooner a pupil knows 



11 



written letters, the sooner the teacher may do a much 
greater amount of teaching by using the blackboard. The 
words should be put in the list just where they are to be 
after it shall have been completed. Follow the same plan 
with Lesson 3. page 6, at which time the list will be in 
this shape: 

and a Lesson 4, page 6, has the following words : I, a 
.... can, cup. I and a should be taught as words 

cat c pronounced like their names as letters. From 
.... this point on pupils should be taught to utilize 

dog d the knowledge gained as to the sound of letters 
.... in finding out other words. For instance, let 

.... pupils look at the list and tell which of the new 

.... words begins like the list word, cat. Pupils will 

man m point to the word can. The teacher should now 
wi"ite the list word just over the new word, thus: cat 

can; after 
which she should ask pupils to "begin to say" cat, and 
show that in beginning to sa)^ "cat," they have really 
begun to say ''can." In the same way use "and" of the 
list to get the sound of short "a" with which knowledge 
the pupils will be able to find out for themselves almost all 
of the new word can. 

A Suggested Pi.an of Lessqx XXIII, Hoi^mes" First 

Reader. 

First Step. Awaken interest in the lesson and thus 

lead pupils to wish to read it. 

Means. Use picture which is ver}^ suggestive. 

The skilful teacher may, by well directed 
questions, lead the pupils to use the new 
words in sentences descriptive of the pic- 
ture. These sentences may be like the 
following, and should, if possible, be- 
written on the blackboard : 



13 



Second Step. 



Learning the 
new words. 



Method. 



I see a sivan. 

A swan is a bird. 

A swan can swim. 

A swan can swim fast. 

A swan can swim very fast. 

A swan cannot walk very fast. 

I see the neck of the swan. 

I see the side of the neck. 

The above, or similar sentences having 
been written on the board, have pupils 
point out the new words in each. 

Write ' 'sw" on the board, give the com- 
bined sound of the two letters, and have 
pupils repeat the sound after you. 

Next, give for pupils the sound that 
"an" has in "swan" and have them re- 
peat it after you, and by again giving the 
sounds of " sw " and "an" more and 
more rapidly, pupils doing the same, lead 
them to give the correct pronunciation 
of the word. 

' 'Swim" is easily taught after " swan " 
has been taught. It is merely a combi- 
nation of the sw sound, short i, and the 
m sound. 

The next word in the lesson is "bird," 
and is easily taught if the pupils have a 
fair knowledge of phonics. The " ir " 
sound has been learned in the word 
' ' girl ' ' on page 8. The three sounds 
involved are the "b"' sound, "ir" sound, 
and the "d" sound. And again, even if 
the pupil should be led by the teacher to 
give the sound of b, short i, r, and d, he 
would so nearly give the correct pronun- 
ciation of the word as to know how it 
should be pronounced and call it accord- 
ingly- 



13 



"Side' ' may be taught by telling pupils 
that "e" at the endof a word" makes "i" 
say its own name. 

"Very. ' ' Here we have a "v" sound at 
the beginning of a word. Show how to 
give its sound by placing the upper teeth 
upon the lower lip and causing the breath 
to pass out of the mouth. 

"Fast" and "neck" are regular save 
that ck in neck has the same sound that 
either c or k has by itself. 

"Walk" may be utilized to show that 

"a" before "1" has the sound of "a" in 

the word all. 

After the above has been rapidly developed before the 

class, Lesson XXIII may be assigned for the "next les_ 

son," which may then well become a "recitation." 

Pupils will have acquired much power for finding out 
new words for themselves when they have learned the 
short sounds of the vowels, the sounds of the consonants, 
that final "e" in words of one syllable lengthens the 
other vowel and makes it say its own name, that "a" be- 
fore "1" has the "au" sound, and before "r" has the 
sound of "a" in "car". 

"THE BIvUK BACK SPEl^IvER." 

This book is yet used in many of our public schools. 
If it is used as its author intended it should be used, it is a 
great aid to the First and Second Reader pupils, in that it 
will drill them in the use of the powers or sounds of the 
letters in finding out a new word. Its author believed 
absolutely in the phonic method, and never for a moment 
thought that teachers would ever abuse the book by hav- 
ing their pupils call the letters in a word as a means of 
finding out the pronunciation of the word. 

There is a phonic chart on the top of every page, and 
there is a seven-page preface devoted to a discussion of 
the sounds of the letters. On page 8 we read : ' ' Bach of 



14 



the vowels has its regular long and short sounds, which 
are most used, and also certain occasional sounds, etc." 
Guided by this it would be well for the teacher to give 
careful drill, first in such words only as contain short- 
vowel sounds; next, those containing long- vowel sounds, 
and after that, those which contain vowels having the 
' ' occasional sounds, ' ' in the order here suggested : Nos. 
4, 5, 12, 13, 14, 15 (omitting bar, far, tar, etc., unless the 
teacher should prefer to teach just here the sound of "a" 
before "r"), 21 (omitting the first line and carp, scarp, 
etc., unless the teacher wishes to teach the sounds of 
' 'ar, " "or, " ' 'ur' ' ) , 36 and 37. After this have careful drill 
in the short sounds, teach the fact that as a rule "e" at the 
end of a .word (monosyllable) lengthens the preceding 
vowel and makes it say its name, and drill in this by use 
of the following lessons : 

Nos. 17, 18, 19, 20, 55, 61, after which, the regular long 
and short sounds now having been taught, begin at No. 
21 and follow the order given in the book. 

One of the very best books for primary teachers wishing 
to learn or teach the phonic method is Moses' Phonic 
Reader, published by Edwards & Broughton, Raleigh. 
Nearlj' every page contains valuable hints and sugges- 
tions for the teacher. 



SPELLING. 



Every person who writes spells some way or other, but 
every writer is not a correct speller. 

One should not write a word unless he knows its mean- 
ing, therefore it would be well to see that the pupil know^s 
the meaning of every word in the spelling lesson that you 
assign. Part of the spelling time might be well spent in 
"going over " with the class the words in next day's les- 
son and helping each child to master the meaning of the 
words. The written recitation is the best that can be used, 
but nothing works up more enthusiasm than an old time 
spelling class once or twice a week and allowing the pupils 
to have " cutting down." 



15 



WRITIJfO. 

The teacher should rule the slates of all pupils who do 
not have copy-books. The slates should be ruled in con- 
formity to the copy-book used in the school. The ruling 
should be done with the point of a sharp knife. Care 
should be taken not to bear too hard upon the knife while 
ruling. 

Many teachers devote much time to their writing lessons 
and yet spoil it by imposing writing tasks for bad conduct 
or bad lessons. These tasks are not performed with care 
and thus the good effects of the training in writing are lost. 



TEACHING ENGLISH. 

Language-teaching should be made incidental with in- 
struction in History, Geography, Botany, and especially 
with reading. 

In all recitations, whatever be the subject, care should 
be exercised, in a kind, helpful way, over the spoken as 
well as the written language of pupils. 

A clear and forceful reading of a sentence will often 
bring to light the relations of words, phrases- and clauses 
not before seen by pupils; and it is not possible for teacher 
or pupil to give such reading without a perception of such 
relation. Good reading will aid deficient knowledge of 
language ; and clear linguistic perception will facilitate 
good reading. _ 

The tendency of our children is to adopt the incorrect 
forms of speech uttered in their hearing ; and our schools 
should make intelligent and persistent effort to counteract 
this tendency, and to inspire pupils with a love for our 
mother tongue in its purity and simplicity. The teacher, 
therefore, has a two-fold object before him — to secure in 
pupils the habitual use of good English, and to inspire in 
them a love of our English Classics. Happil}^ in this day 
of multiplied books, there are very valuable aids to teach- 
ing the English language to young pupils in some of the 
admirable books published for this purpose. 



16 



Less is said here about formal Grammar than about lan- 
guage-learning, because formal Grammar is an inheritance 
which has come down to us from Greece and Rome and is 
not necessary to the understanding of English ; while lan- 
guage-learning concerns every child from the time the 
first words are spoken till the use of good English has be- 
come a fixed habit. The purpose sought in our schools 
in the teaching of English may be better gained by giving 
more time to Language Lessons and composition, and less 
to technical English Grammar. 

The length of time our children are likely to remain in 
school cannot wisely be ignored by a teacher in adjusting 
subjects to be taught; and it is ever well to remember 
that a few things well learned will be much better than a 
smattering in many. 

The following are given as exarnple lessons in the be- 
ginning of this subject. The best plan will probably be 
to get the best text-book published, if possible, and fol- 
low it with such abreviation and variation as the needs of 
the pupils may clearly show^ 

If the length of time during which all the schools are 
operated were the same, and the text-books the same, a 
scheme might here be presented that would be very help- 
ful to many teachers. The following outline of lessons is 
intended to be suggestive and thereby helpful. 

I.ESSON ON THE SENTENCE. 

The thought must precede its expression. The sentence 
is the expression of a thought. The proper method will 
require first the study of the thought, and second the 
study of the sentence. 

Teacher. — Children, you may write something on your- 
slates about horses, dogs, birds, men. 

You may write thus: 

Horses run. 

The pupils write : 

Horses run. 

Men walk. 

Birds fly. 



17 



T. Which did you do first, think, or write ? 

Pupils. We thought, 

T. What then do the words written tell ? 

P. They tell what we thought. 

T. From this lesson I wish you to learn that words so 
put together as to express a thought, form a sentence. 

Definition : 

A sentence is the expression of a thought in words. 
Copy this and be able to repeat it to-morrow\ 

T. Do the words as thus arranged express a thought : 
Horses run ? 

P. They do, 

T. What is a sentence ? 

P. A sentence is the. expression of a thought in words. 

T. What then may w^e call the expression. Horses run ? 

P. A sentence. 

T, Men walk ? 
. P. A sentence. 

T. Birds fly ? 

P. A sentence. 

Continue, if time allows, by other examples. 

I.ESSON ON SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

1. Apples are good. 

2. The teacher rang the bell. 

3. The boys brought water. 

4. The school closed on Friday. 

T. What may each of these four expressions be called ? 

P. A sentence. 

T. About what is something said in the first ? 

P. Apples. 

T. In the second? 

P. Teacher. 

T. In the third, in the fourth ? 

T. That part or word in a sentence which tells the per- 
son or thing about which something is said is called the 
subject of the sentence. 



18 



T. What is the subject of the first sentence ? 

P. Apples. 

T. Of the second ? 

P. Teacher. 
• T. Of the third ? 

P. Boys. 

T. Of the fourth ? 

P. School. 

T. What is said in the first sentence about apples ? 

P. Are good. 

T. What in the second about teacher? 

P. Rang the bell — ^the teacher rang. 

T. What in the third about boys ? 

P. Brought water. 

T. What in the fourth about school ? 

P. Closed on Friday. 

T. Copy the following definition : 

What is said of the subject is called the predicate. 

T. Class, what is the predicate of the first sentence? 
Of the second ? Of the third ? Of the fourth ? 

Other examples may be given and the pupils asked to 
name subject and predicate in each and give their reasons 
for so thinking. 

I^ESSON ON THE NOUN. 

T. Each pupil please name five things that may be seen 
in the school-room. 
P. Chair. 
. Desk. 
Stove. 
Books. 
Boys. 
T. Each of these is the name of something ; and so is 
called a name, or noun, the two words noun and name 
meaning the same thing. 

T. Class, please to write five sentences using the names 
you have mentioned as subjects. 
Pupils write : 
The chair stands on four legs. 



19 



The desk is made of wood. 

The stove is made of iron. 

Books are read by the boys. 

Boys like to play ball. 

T. Name every noun in these five sentences. 

The pupils name all but "legs," "wood," and "iron." 

T. Does the word "legs" name anything? 

Think ! — "Legs" is the name of the four wooden posts 
on which the chair stands, as a man stands on his two 
legs. Also wood is the name of the material out of which 
the chair is made ; arid "iron," the name of the metal or 
material of which the stove is made. Therefore they are 
nouns. 

Write the following definition on your slates : 

A nou7i is the name of aiiythijig. 

Write ten names of things not before used in this lesson : 

Pupils write birds, horses, hog, chicken, duck, water, 
bread, fire, tree, axe. 

T. Why do you think the word birds is a noun ? 

P. Because it is a name. 

The same may be asked of every other of the ten words. 

T. What is the definition of noun ? 

P. A noun is the name of anything. 

I.ESSON ON KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

A sentence may make a statement, ask a question , give 
a command, or utter an exclamation. 
Examples : 

I. The boy went home. 
^. Has the boy gone home ? 

3. Bring in some wood. 

4. How glad I am to see you ! 

T. Each pupil please write four sentences of each of 
the four kinds here mentioned. 

A sentence that declares is called declarative. 

A sentence that asks a question is called interrogative* 

A sentence that commands is called imperative. 

A sentence that expresses an emotion is called exclama 
tory. 



20 

I^ESSON ON ERRORS. 

The following expressions are correct. Drill the pupils 
on them, and call attention to the errors heard in the 
school or at home in relation to these expressions : 

1. He doesn't know anything about it. 

2. I don't know where my book is. 

3. He does not recite well. 

4. We do not wish to go. 

5. We don't wish to go. 

6. I wasn't there. 

7. I was not there. 

8. It was I that broke that slate ; it was not she. 

9. It is they that need advice, and not we. 
TO. I don't like that kind of hats. 

Teachers of English Language should carefully study the 
text-books adopted in their counties. Valuable aid may 
be obtained from W. D. Whitney's Essentials of English 
Grammar, and the same author's Language and Language 
Study, from Tarbell's Lessons in Language, and Hyde's 
Practical Lessons in the use of English. 

See also Rev. A. H. Sayce's article on Grammar in En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica, and the work of Mr. Sweet on 
Words, Logic and Grammar ; also Richard Grant White's 
Everyday English, and Lounsbury's History of the Eng- 
lish Language. 

It is suggested that teachers may render great service to 
the communities in which they teach by leading in the 
formation of School Libraries. In some counties Literary 
Societies have been formed and such deserve encourage- 
ment. These cannot be conducted satisfactorily without 
books. A school can do nothing better for a child than 
the implanting of such a thirst for knowledge as will lead 
to the formation of a habit of reading. Books are cheap, 
yet wisdom is needed in their selection. 

The following list is suggested with the hope that it may 
prove helpful to those teachers throughout the State who 
are impressed with the importance of this kind of work . 



21 



Seek to form the nucleus of a Library in every commu- 
nity in which you teach. 

No effort is made to indicate the importance of a book 
by the order in which it is named. 

1. Grimm's Tales, selected, 2 vols., Ginn & Co. 

2. Ruskin's King of the Golden River, Ginn & Co. 

3. Robinson Crusoe, condensed, Ginn & Co. 

4. Hans Andersen's Tales, first and second series. 

5. Hawthorne's Wonder Book and Tanglewood Tales, 
Houghton, Mifflin &.Co. 

6. Beautiful Joe, the story of a dog. 

7. Black Beauty, the story of a horse. 

8. Kingsley's Water Babies, Ginn & Co. 

9. Alice in Wonderland, Macmillan & Co. 

10. Palgrave's Children's Treasury of Lyrical Poetry, 
Macmillan & Co. 

1 1 . Mrs. Gatty 's Parables from Nature, Macmillan & Co- 

12. Boyesen's Viking Tales, Scribners. 

13. Miss Alcott's Little Women. 

14. Miss Alcott's Old-fashioned Girl. 

15. The Heart of Oak Books, edited by C. E. Norton. 

16. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. 

17. Gulliver's Travels. 

18. Church's Stories from Homer. 

19. Fiske's History of the United States. 

20. Dicken's Child's History of England. 

21. The Boys of '76. 

22. Scott's Novels. 

23. Leatherstocking Stories, by Jas. Fennimore Cooper. 

24. Self-Help by Samuel Smiles. 

25. Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome. 

26. Tom Brown at Rugby. 

27. The Firbt and Second Jungle Book by Rudyard 
Kipling. 

Harris. Uncle Remus, Songs and Sayings. • 
Andrews. Ten Boys. (Ginn & Co.) 
Longfellow. Evangeline. (Crowell. ) 
Lubbock. Beauties of Nature. (Macmillan.) 
Creasy. Fifteen Decisive Battles. (Crowell.) 



22 



George Eliot. Silas Marner. (Crowell. ) 
Scott. Lady of the Lake. (Crowell.) 
Buckley. Fairy Land of Science. (Appleton.) 
Osgood. Citizen Bird. (Macmillan. ) 
Osgood. Four Footed Americans. (Macmillan.) 
Goldsmith. Vicar of Wakefield. (Crowell.) 



E?fOLISH LITERATURE. 

The teacher should always be mindful of Matthew Ar- 
nold's maxim that " a single line of poetry, a single great 
thought, put^to work in a pupil's mind, is worth any num- 
ber of facts of literary history." With this end in view, 
the pupil should be given real literature as soon as possi- 
ble. Mere selections are to be avoided, and the tradi- 
tional "Reader," if retained, should be supplemented 
with unmutilated classics in prose and verse. Only under 
exceptional circumstances should pupils be given dis- 
jointed passages from the novelists or dramatists. It will 
be found helpful to give a small part of each day to read- 
ing aloud some short story or poem to the whole school. 
Drill in elocution, when directed to reading, rather than 
to speaking, is time well spent. Pupils should be espec- 
ially encouraged to memorize passages of prose and verse 
suited to their age and progress. 

The following course of supplementary reading is recom- 
mended : 

First Rejadkr Gradk. — Golden-Rod Book No. i (Uni- 
versity Publishing Co., 20c.); Scudder's Fables and Folk 
Stories, Part i. 

Second Reader Grade. — Golden-Rod Book No. 2 
(25c.); Scudder's Fables and Folk Stories, Parts 2 and 3 
(Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 15c. a part in paper, or all 
three parts in one volume, cloth, 40c). 

Third Reader Grade. — Hans Andersen's Tales, first 
series (Ginn & Co., 25c.); Ruskin's King of the Golden^ 
River (Maynard's Classics, loc); Golden-Rod Book No. 
3 (30c). 



23 



Fourth Readkr Grade. — Palgrave's Children's Treas- 
ury, (Macmillati Co., 50c.); Dicken's Christmas Carol 
(Maynard's Classics, loc. ) ; Kingsley's Water Babies (Ginn 
& Co., 25c.); Selections from Irving's Sketch Book (Ginn 
& Co., 25c.); Robinson Crusoe (Maynard's Classics, 20c). 

teacher's course. 

The basis of the teacher's private study should be Pan- 
coast's Introduction to English Literature, supplemented 
by Green's Short History of the English People. The fol- 
lowing classics shoufd be read in connection with the 
study of the periods they illustrate: 

I. Norman - French Period. — Tennj^son's Harold, 
Shakespeare's King John, Scott's The Betrothed and Ivan- 
hoe, Bulwer's Ivast of the Barons. 

II. Elizabethan Period. — Shakespeare's Merchant of- 
Venice, Julius Caesar, and King Lear, Palgrave's Golden 
Treasury (Part I), Scott's Kenil worth. 

III. Puritan Period. — Scott's Woodstock, Milton's 
Iv' Allegro, II Penseroso, Comus, and Paradise Lost (Books 
I and II), Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. 

IV. Eighteenth Century. — Selections from Addison 
and Steele and Macaulay's Life of Addison (Allyn and 
Bacon's edition in one volume, 50c.), Macaulay's Life of 
Johnson (Maynard's Classics, loc). Goldsmith's Deserted 
Village (Maynard's Classics, loc. ), Pope's Rape of the 
Lock (Maynard's Classics, loc. ), Palgrave's Golden Treas- 
ury (Part III), Burns' Tam O'Shanter and Cotter's Satur- 
day Night (Maynard's Classics, loc). 

In fiction, Thackeray's Henry Esmond and The Virgin- 
ians cover this period. 

V. The Modern Period. — Wordsworth (Selections in 
Maynard's Classics), Byron's Prisoner of Chillon (May- 
nard's Classics, loc), Scott's Marmion (Maynard's Class- 
ics, IOC. ), Keats' St. Ages' Eve (Maynard's Classics, loc. ), 
Tennyson's Enoch Arden, Locksley Hall, Crossing the 
Bar (the Astor edition of Tennyson may be had for 35c. ■ ; 
Dickens' David Copperfield, Old Curiosity Shop, and Oli- 
ver Twist; George Eliot's Silas Marner, Mill on the Floss, 



24 



and Adam Bede; Thackeray's The Newcomes, Pendennis, 
and Vanity Fair. 

The novels mentioned above may be had in the Astor 
edition at 35c. Shakespeare may be studied alone best in 
Hudson's edition (Ginn & Co., 40c. a play). Palgrave's 
Golden Treasury may be had in the school edition at 50c. 
(Macmillan Co. ), the selections from Milton, one volume 
with notes (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 40c). 



GEOGRAPHY. 



In too many schools Geography is confined to the printed 
page of the text-book. The recitation consists of the 
teacher's asking the questions laid down at the end of 
each lesson, and requiring the pupil to give the correct 
answer. If the pupil succeeds he has " said his lesson," 
if not, he is "kept in at recess " or "must say it after 
school." Geography teaching of this kind has no con- 
nection with nature and develops in the pupil no profita- 
ble interest in a study which is of the greatest value, on 
account of the mental training and culture to be derived 
from it when properly taught. The average child comes 
to school possessing a knowledge of many facts and phe- 
nomena that are the basis of much geographical knowl- 
edge. He should be taught to so use these facts as to gain 
a knowledge of the great world far removed from his 
every-day life. It will be impossible to give at length in 
this manual a full discussion of the best methods of teach- 
ing geography. It is hoped that many may make an 
effort to bring their work to a higher standard each year. 
The work done by the class would be more permanent in 
its results if the teacher would make for review a short 
blackboard outline of what has been studied. Certainly 
after each continent has been studied, the teacher should, 
with the aid of the class, make a blackboard outline of 
the leading facts learned. This should be preserved and 
made the basis of frequent reviews. The following is by 
no means complete, but is offered by way of suggestion, 
as a brief 



25 

ANAI^YSIS OF NORTH AMERICA : 

Position — 

1. In ? Hemisphere. ^ 

2. North(?) or South(?) of Equator. * 

3. In ? Zones. 

Boundaries — North, South, East, West. 

Size — 

1. Length and breadth (approximately). 

2. Third in size. 

3. ? are larger and ? smaller. 

Form — 

1. General Form — Triangular. 

2. General direction of Arctic coast-line. 

3. General direction of Atlantic coast-line. 

4. General direction of Pacific coast-line. 

5. Prominent projections, Peninsulars and Capes, on 

coast from Gulf of California northward to Point 
Barrow. 

6. Prominent projections from Point Barrow to Gulf of 

Mexico. 

7. Prominent indentations (Gulfs and Bays) from Point 

Barrow to Yucatan. 

8. Prominent indentations on the Pacific coast. 

Surface — 

1. Atlantic Highlands. 

2. Atlantic Slope. 

3. Pacific Highlands. 

4. Pacific Slope. 

5. Great Central Plain. 

6. Height of Land. 

Atlantic Highlands — 

1. Green Mountains. 

2. Adirondacks. 

3. White Mountains. 

4. Alieghanies. 

5. Blue Ridge Mountains. 

6. Smoky Mountains. 



26 



Pacific Highlands — 

1. Rocky Mountains. 

2. Sierra Nevada. 

3. Coast Range. 

4. Sierra Madre. 

Drainage — 

1. Atlantic Slope — give six rivers. 

2. Pacific Slope — give four rivers, 

3. Northern Portion of Great Central Plain — ^give two 

rivers. 

4. Southern Portion of Great Central Plain — give two 

rivers. 

Lakes — 

1. Fresh. 

2. Salt. 

Islands — Give larger ones only. 

Climate — 

1 . With reference to distance from the Equator — North- 

ern, Southern and Central portions. 

2. As modified by elevations, winds, ocean currents. 

Vegetation — 

1. In extreme Northern portion. 

2. In extreme Southern portion. 

3. In intermediate portion. 

4. Locate corn, cotton, wheat. 

Minerals — 

1. Gold. 

2. Silver. 

3. Copper. 

4. Iron. 

5. Lead. 

6. Coal. 

Inhabitants — 

1. White. * 

2. Negro. 

3. Indian, 



27 



Political Divisions — 

1. British America, 

2. Danish America. ' 

3. United States. 

4. Mexico. 

In using this "Analysis" for a review, point to each 
topic and have pupils tell about it. Have pupils supply 
the proper word where the " ? " occurs. 

TEACHERS' COURSE. 

Teachers should carefully study the books adopted for 
use in the schools in their county, and should endeavor to 
thoroughly acxuaint themselves with the author's plans 
of teaching the subject. 

The following books are especially helpful to those who 
wish to increase their knowledge and power of teaching 
Geography : 

King's Methods and Aids in Geography. 

Parker's How to Study Geography, 

Maury's Physical Geography. 

Geological Story Briefly Told. ( Dana, ) 

Frye's Child and Nature. 

N: C. Edition of the Geography adopted in your county. 

North Carolina and Her Resources. ( Agr. Department, 
Raleigh. ) 

Bulletin and all other publications of the Agricultural 
Depatment, Raleigh. 

All publications of N. C. Geological Survey. (Prof. 
J. A. Holmes, Chapel Hill, N. C. 

Any advertising matter published by Railroads of the 
State. 

Railroad Commission Map of thfe State. 

This list might be indefinitely extended, but it is thought 
better to recommend a few than too many for, etc. 



28 
• HISTORY. 

THE PURPOSE OF HISTORY TEACHING. 

1. To increase our love of home and native land, — to 
make our boys and girls true patriots. 

2. To get a view of the great men of the past and be 
thereby stimulated to endeavor to become like them. 

3. To learn wisdom by studying the lives of great men. 

4. To learn how the blessings of liberty were secured, 
and how they must be preserved. 

5. To strengthen the memory, cultivate the imagination, 
and to acquire such knowledge from the experience of 
others as will enable us to judge wisely, and act cor- 
rectly at all times. 

HOW AND WHEN TO INTRODUCE THE STUDY, 

Children like stories and pictures ; every teacher of 
history, therefore, should know how to tell a story and 
draw a map upon the blackboard. He must know how 
to draw as he talks, and how to fill in each detail on the 
map as he speaks of it to the class. The school terms in 
our State are so very short, and of such unequal lengths 
that it is impossible to say just what should be accom- 
plished in each school. In the average school of three 
or four months term it would be well to divide the whole 
number of pupils into three classes in history, as follows: 

1. All who cannot read well enough to study a book or 
who will not get one. 

2. Those who read well enough to study the primary 
history book. 

3. Those w^ho are prepared to study the larger book. 

WHAT TO TEACH EACH CI^ASS. 

First Class. 

Teach orally stories of Columbus, the Indians omitting 
cruelties, the Mound Builders, Americus Vespucius, the 
Cabots, Ponce de Leon, Balboa, De Soto, Magellan, Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Walter Raleigh, Amadas and Bar- 



29 



lowe, Roanoke Settlements, Drake, Pocahontas and John 
Smith. , 

Second Class. 

This class should begin the use of the smaller history. 
Teach orally Plymouth Rock, Jamestown, Cartier, Cham- 
plain, Father Marquette, I^a Salle. lyocate on the map all 
the places connected with the above. The fact that the 
class has or has not reached all of these topics as laid 
down in the text-book need not prevent you from teach, 
ing them orally. This oral instruction should be given 
caref'-iUy so as to emphasize these important and leading 
facts in American History. If your county is named after 
a person, your pupils should be taught something of his 
life, and every pupil should know after whom our State 
was named and something of his history. 

TJ/ird Class. 

This class should study the larger book. In studying 
the Revolution, reinforce the text-book by teaching care- 
fully and thoroughly the battles of Moore's Creek, Ala- 
mance, Ramsour's Mill, King's Mountain, and Guilford 
Court House, and the Mecklenburg Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. The Stamp Act Disturbances on the Cape 
Fear should be taught by all means. When the anni- 
versary of any of these important revolutionary events 
occurs during the school term it should be observed by 
the whole school and made the special lesson of the day. 

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

• 

The amount of work assigned to each class should be 
made larger or smaller, as the interests of the pupils may 
demand. 

First Class. 

The most available help for teaching aiy of the subjects 
in this class is found in the opening chapters of any Uni- 
ted States History. The instruction need not necessarily 
be given daily, and should be entirely oral or read to the 
children from some well-written history. If a pupil should 



30 



become so much interested in the subject as to bring to 
school any old history book he might find at home, it maj- 
stimulate the others to let him read aloud certain passages 
selected by the teacher. Reading " The Story of Colum- 
bus' ' from first one history and then another will not tire 
the pupils, but will hold their interest. The same is true 
of stories descriptive of the Indians, These stories may 
be as many and as comprehensive as desired, but the main 
points should finally be brought out in short sentences, 
written in reply to such questions as the following, written 
on the blackboard: 

Where did Columbus live ? 
What was his occupation ? 

What did he think was the shape of the earth ? 
What country did he think he could reach by sailing 
westwardly ? 

In sailing westwardly what country did he reach ? 
What country did he think it was ? 

These questions are merely suggestive and should be 
added to. Those who know the answers and are unable 
to write the replies should be allowed to answer orally. 

Second Class. 

Follow the same general plan laid down for the first 
class, but make the work more comprehensive. Insist 
upon a great deal of written work in reply to questions on 
the blackboard. In this kind of work it is always best to 
let pupils give oral replies before they attempt to write 
them. Be sure to answer such questions as may be an- 
swered with a short sentence. 

Third Class. 

Continue plan used in the other classes. Throw light 
upon the text by reading occasionally to the class the 
same subject from another book. Make frequent use of 
"Topical Outline" and "Blackboard Form" as an aid in 
review lessons. Let these be written on the board and 
"questioned" about as they are built up before the pupils. 



31 



TEACHERS' COURSE. 

Study the text-books adopted for use in the schools of 
the county. 

Study also any history that you may get possession of 
whether you regard it as trustworthy or impartial or not. 
The fairest student of history will read not only those books 
which he regards as impartial, but those also which are 
said to be partial, and thus make an honest investigation 
for the truth. In teaching United States History much 
attention must be given to the history of our own State. 
The following books are very helpful : Spencer's First 
Steps; Moore's History of North Carolina; Tales of the 
Cape Fear (Sprunt); A Colonial Officer and His Times 
(Waddell); Wiley's North Carolina Reader; Caruthers' 
Old North State; Wheeler's History of North Carolina; 
Colonial Records (Office Clerk of Court). 

PEDAGOGlCAIv I.IBRARY. 

North Carolina Journal of Education. 
The Essentials of Method, (DeGarmo). 
Applied Psychology, (Mclvellan). 
Elements of General Method, (McMurray), 
Herbart and the Herbartians. 
Practical Lessons in Pedagogy, (Krohn). 
Talks on Pedagogics, (Parker). 
History of Education, (Painter). 



32 



A BRIEF COURSE IN CIVICS OUTLINED FOR THE 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

Introductory. — A prominent educator spoke a great 
truth when he said, " The object of education is not to 
teach men to be great scholars, but liotv to live..'''' The 
teacher has no grander opportunity to carry out this idea 
than in teaching civil government. The study of civil 
government, or Civics, is finding out how people live under 
government, and its object should be to teach boys and 
girls the best way of living. And would not our teaching 
be more effective if we should impress upon their minds 
that they become citizens, in the broader sense, as soon 
as they are born, and that they should strive to be good, 
patriotic citizens — beginning right noxv. 

Pupils cannot too early be taught to be patriotic, but this 
is often done improperly. Patriotism does not consist — 
as many suppose — in bragging about one's country, nor in 
sneering at other nations or races. Patriots are those peo- 
ple who love their country and can tell vjhy they love it. 
They can only tell xvhy when they know something of its 
government. A man's opinion about his country isn't 
worth much, and will not be respected, unless it is based 
upon knowledge, for ' * knowledge is power. ' ' Patriots, 
then, are men who know the history of their country, how 
it is governed, how its laws are made, what rights are to 
be enjoyed, and what duties are to be performed. People 
who are without this knowledge are nearly always narrow- 
minded, prejudiced, unscrupulous, wavering, and ready 
to follow any popular craze that comes along. 

The class of people above referred to is becoming a 
dangerous element in our country, and the only sure way 
of meeting the danger is to begin with the public schools, 
and there apply the remedy. 

Ivct all the public-school pupils in our country be in- 
structed in the history of our government, its constitu- 



FooT Note. — The course in Civics was prepared by Prof. C. F. 
Tomlinson, Winston, at the request of the Superintendent Public 
Instruction. 



33 



tion, its laws, and the great principles that guided its 
founders, and then there need be no fears for our future. 

In preparing the following brief course in Civics the 
foremost aim of the writer has been, not to stick strictly 
to the "pedagogic arrangement of the course," but to 
present something that is suitable for the public schools 
of North Carolina just as we find them to-day — a course 
that may be completed in three months' time, and one 
which every teacher holding a certificate should be able 
to teach successfully. 

Books. — The teacher should be supplied with "The 
American Citizen " by Dole, (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 
|i.oo); "Finger's Civics," (University Publishing Co., 
N. Y., 60 cents); "Civic Reader," (Maynard, Merrill & 
Co., N. Y., 60 cents), and a World's or Washington Post 
Almanac. The first mentioned book contains an excel- 
lent list of additional works — some of which may be de- 
sired. If the pupils can afford a book, Finger's Civics will 
be of most benefit to them, as it contains the State Con- 
stitution. 

CiyASSES. — A public school may be divided, for our pur- 
poses, into two classes — the one composed of yotmger 
pupils, the other of older. In a school of 65 pupils prob- 
ably 40 would rank in the former and 25 in the latter class. 
The outline given is intended to be followed only by the 
older pupils. But the younger ones (not including begin- 
ners ) should not be left out entirely. Read them a chap- 
ter three times a week from that elegant, yet simple Civic 
Reader mentioned in the book list. Ask them questions 
on what is read, and they will know the book from cover 
to cover at the close of the term. 

OUTI^INE OF WORK. 

Civil government is inseparably associated with his- 
tory — therefore the historical feature of the study should 
receive all the consideration necessary to make the course 
complete. It will also stimulate interest and original re- 
search on the part of pupils. 

The: Vii<i,agE. — Every village, ever3'-town or city, every 



34 



count}^, has a history. Ivet the pupils, if they live in a 
village, find out all they can about its history. Who were 
some of its first inhabitants ? Have any very prominent 
men lived in it? Has it grown fast? If not, are the rea- 
sons to be attributed to its location, its soil, its climate, or 
lack of the progressive spirit ? All sorts of answers to such 
questions will be given by the pupils, but they will all help 
to get down to the real facts. 

Do any officers live in the village? A Justice of the 
Peace ? How did he become an officer ? Who appointed 
or elected him ? Does he get a good salary ? What are his 
duties? Can he send a horse thief to the penitentiary? 
Can lie send him to the county roads? Could he settle a 
dispute over a piece of land valued at ^500 ? 

Similar questions may be asked concerning any other 
officer that lives in or near the village. If the public school 
is in a larger town, or city, which has a Mayor, commis- 
sioners, policemen, tax collectors, school committee and 
numerous other officers, the duties, election, salaries, etc., 
-of these men should be fully discussed. The topic might 
be concluded with a general debate on the question. 
" Resolved, that country life is preferable to town, or city 
life." 

The County. — This must be the starting point with 
many schools — situated in thinly populated districts, for 
the people in such districts come in contact only with the 
ofiicers of county government. A historical study of the 
count}'' is first made — when formed, for whom named, 
countj^ seat, for whom named, etc. Take Mecklenburg 
county for an example. It was named in honor of the 
wife of George III — Charlotte of Mecklenburg. We can 
easily see in a moment just where the name of county and 
county seat came from. And as it was Admiral Anson 
who brought Charlotte of Mecklenburg to England, it was 
quite natural that the count)^ adjacent to Mecklenburg 
should be named for him — hence Anson county. These 
two counties being very large, it was thought best in 1S42 
to unite adjoining parts of each, and form a new county. 
The result was — "Union." These exercises may be made 
exceedingly interesting. 



€)0 



Next take up the county officers — their names, duties, 
salaries, when and how elected. Taxes will also be an 
interesting topic to discuss. Let the pupils find out the 
meaning of poll-tax, tax on personal and real property 
what taxes are used for, why every citizen should pay tax, 
etc. They should know also that in North Carolina the 
rule is that the tax on |i3oo worth of property must always 
be the same as the poll-tax. Give them simple problems 
like this : ' ' What tax must a man pay on .f 750 worth of 
property, if poll-tax is $1 .50 ? What will his total tax be ?' ' 
Bach pupil should know the rate of taxation in his own 
county, and how much is used for county, and how much 
for State purposes. 

The: State. — A brief sketch of the history of the State — 
such as may be found in Superintendent Noble's Supple- 
ment to Maura}- 's Geog'raphy — should be read to the class, 
even if they have made North Carolina History a regular 
study previously. 

Departments of State Government follow — Legislative, 
Judicial, Executive, 

The pupils should know that the Legislature is divided 
into two bodies — House and Senate, the one composed of 
120 members, the other of 50. The members of the two 
Houses are elected by the voters of the counties. Each 
county must be represented in the Legislature. The Legis- 
lature meets every two years in Raleigh — the capital. The 
Lieutenant-Governor presides over the Senate, and the 
Speaker over the House. The duty of the Legislature is 
to make laws. 

The Judicial Department finds out whether or not the 
laws made are just and constitutional. The Supreme 
Court Judges should be known, where they meet, how 
often, etc. 

The Superior Courts, held in each county at stated times, 
are a branch of the Judicial Department of the State. There 
are twelve Superior Court Judges and a like number of 
judicial districts. The pupils ought to know the judge 
from their own district, and all the officers that are in any 
way connected with the Superior Court held in their 
count V, 



36 



They should know the duties of the grand jury, sohci- 
tor, regular jury, etc., understand such terms as indict- 
ment, bail, evidence, testimon5^ the oath, cross-examina- 
tion, and appeal. Also explain what the judge does when 
he "charges the grand jury." 

The Bxecutive Department sees that the laws of the 
State are executed, or enforced. The chief executive offi- 
cer is the Governor. The names duties, salaries, term of 
office, etc. , of all the executive officers should be known. 
The Governor of North Carolina does not have as much 
power as governors of some States, because he cannot veto 
bills. The Governor has a Council of State to advise him 
on matters of public concern. This council is composed 
of the Secretary of State, the Auditor, the Treasurer and 
the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

When the Executive Department is studied, a history of 
all the governors of the State excites interest and brings 
out valuable information. The stud}^ of the Judicial De- 
partment should cause inquiry concerning the State's 
greatest jurists and members of the bar. 

When the Legislative department is taken up each pupil 
should know who represents his county in the legislature. 
Let the teacher add further topics under State governme.nt 
according to the time that can be devoted to the subject. 

The GkneraIv Government. — Why do we say "gene- 
ral government ' ' ? Because this government makes laws 
that affect people generally. It does not legislate for any 
particular section. It is for the protection of the people 
of all the States united. 

The study of the general government may be carried on 
in much the same manner as that of State government. 
It is divided into the same number of departments, with 
corresponding duties. Possibly the best way to study this 
topic is through the Constitution, which we take up later. 
All along, the teacher and pupils should note the points 
of similarity between State and General Government. For 
example, the term of a member of the legislature begins 
when he is elected, while the term of a congressman does 
not begin until the 4th of March following his election. 
By contrasting such facts, they will be easily remembered. 



37 



The State Constitution. — The lirst Constitution of 
North Carolina was made at Halifax in December, 1776, 
by "representatives of the freemen of the State." This 
continued to be our fundamental law until 1S35, when a 
convention held in the city of Raleigh adopted amend- 
ments which were ratified by the people. Subsequent 
amendments have been made from time to time. There 
are two ways of changing our State Constitution: (i.) By 
calling a convention. Two-thirds of all the members can 
make a change. ^2.) By legislative enactment. Three- 
fifths of all the members of the legislature must first pass 
the constitutional change, then publish it, and then it 
must be passed by a two-thirds majority in the next legis- 
lature. 

I'lider the old Constitution a man could not vote unless 
he had property in land, or paid a certain amount of taxes. 
The State officers were then elected by the legislature. 
By amendments to the Constitution any freeman may now 
vote, and State officers are no longer elected by the legis- 
lature, but by the people directly. 

The present State Constitution may be divided into four- 
teen leading topics; viz., (i.) Declaration of rights. (2.) 
Legislative department (3.) Executive department. (4.) 
Judicial department. (5.) Revenue and taxation. (6.) 
Suffrage and eligibility to office. ( 7. ) Municipal corpora- 
tions. (8.) Other corporations. (9.) Education. (lO.) 
Homesteads and exemptions, (n.) Punishments. (12.) 
Militia. (13.) Amendments — how made. (14.) Miscel- 
laneous. 

The best way to study the Constitution is to make 'an 
outline of each topic, copy on the blackboard, and require 
the pupils to fill in the answers. In this way they not 
only read the Constitution but make an analysis of it also. 

Below is given an analysis of the ninth topic — Educa- 
tion. The teacher can easily outline the others in a simi- 
lar manner, always guarding against too many details, for 
it is the Constitution as a whole that we wish to be familiar 
with. Details destroy its unity. 



38 



IX. Education. 



II. ^Legislature 
required to 
provide 



r 



I. Why the State should educate. 

Free public schools, 
for both races, for all 
children of State be- 
tween ages of 6 and 
21, said schools to be 
maintained at least 
four months in every 
year. 

T. State University. 

2. Colleges of Agri- 
culture, Mechanics, 
Mining, Normal Col- 
leges, etc. 

3. Compulsory'' at- 
tendance in public 
schools. 

IV. Sources of support for public edu- 

cation. 

V. State Board of ( ^- O^ ^J^^ ^°°^- 

Education. \ P°^^^- 
2. Powers. 



Ill 



^Legislature 
may provide ^ 
for 



Constitution of United States. — May be studied in 
a similar manner to that of the State. Pupils are often 
required to commit to memory the Preamble, but do they 
always get the full meaning out of it? If not, place on 
blackboard, as the first lesson on the Constitution, the 
following outline : 



The Const'tntlon of U. S.'\ 



I. Parties to the compact. 



II. Purposes. - 



III. Thing; done 



I 

2 

a 

4 
5 
6- 

.{ 



/ 2 



* These questions filled out to illustrate the method. 
•j- Doles' American Citizen. 



39 



Ask the pupils to get every anszver to the above from 
the Preamble. When the}^ have done this they will not 
only know the Preamble, but also know -lvJi y they shonid 
know it. 

^ >!< ^ >;<>}; ^ ^ ^ 

The outline may be continued after the following man- 
ner, always requiring that the answers be fitted in directly 
from the Constitution itself. 

I. Parts of the General Government. 

{a.) Law-making power, or Congress. 

1. House of Representatives composed of 
357 members (at present), apportioned to the 
various States according to population. The 
qualifications, election, term of office, salary, 
etc., of Representatives should be noticed. 
North Carolina has nine Congressmen from 
as many districts. The pupils should at least 
know the Congressman from their own dis- 
trict. 

2. Senate — composed of 90 members, two 
from each State. Apply same questions given 
above to Senators. 

{b.) Judicial or Law Interpreting power. 

1. Judges of Supreme Court. 

2. Judges of Inferior Courts held in the 
State of North Carolina. 

Numerous examples should be given of cases that come 
before the United States Courts at their sessions in differ- 
ent parts of the State. 

(c.) Executive. 

1. President — term, election, qualifications, 
duties, powers, etc. 

2. Vice-President (same questions). 
Duties of cabinet officers should be considersd here also. 

The name of each cabinet officer should be known. 

II. Powers granted to Congress. 

III. Powers denied to Congress. 

IV. Powers denied to the States. 



40 



x\ll powers not granted to Congress nor denied to the 
States, are reserved for the feofle of the States. 

The final work along this line should be a comparison 
of the Constitution of the State with the Federal Constitu- 
tion — so far, at least, as is necessary to show that the one 
is a Constitution of limitations, while the other is one of 
grants; that the Constitution of the United States is the 
supreme law of the land only because the States have 
made it so, and that, therefore, the real supremacy in our 
government lies in the people, as members of sovereign 
States. 

SUPPT^EMENTARY — DuTlES OF CiTlZENS. 

Pupils may easily get the notion that the object of the 
study of Civics is to enable them to discover all the rights 
that are due them b}^ the government. Unfortunately the 
average citizen knows too well how to get something out 
of the government, but too little about what his duties 
io-ward the government are. 

Our government fulfills its mission, and helps the peo- 
ple, just in proportion as the people do their duty toward 
it. Because of the importance of this idea, a brief supple- 
mentary outline is added. 

I. Some Duties of Citizens. 

(i.) Voting. 
(2.) Pay taxes. 
(3.) Assume responsibility. 
(4. ) Work for education of all the people. 
(5. ) Make sacrifices for the good of all. 
( 6. ) Obey the laws. 
(7.) Respect authority. 
(8.) Protect public property. 
(9.) Serve the public for the public good. 
( 10. ) Possess public spirit. 

II. Some Abuses Good Citizens ShouIvD Seek to 
Remedy. 

(I.) Government meddling with business. 
(2.) Offensive partisanship. 



41 



(3.) Selfishness on part of those in power. 

(4.) "Jobbery" and "patronage." 

( 5. ) Government going into debt. 

(6.) Allowing ignorant men to vote. 

(7.) Ivobbying. 

(8, ) Following popular crazes. 

III. Finally let the pupils sum up the qualities that a 
person should possess to make him a good citizen. Their 
statements summarized will doubtless include the follow- 
ing : 

A Good Citizen is one who is obedient, polite, orderly, 
clean, chivalrous, able to control himself, has a high sense 
of honor, knows how to use money, is thorough, truthful, 
respects authority, does not shirk responsibility, knows 
how to use power rightly, is conservative yet liberal, and 
is alwajs hopeful that good will triumph over evil. 



ARITHMETIC. 



The teacher of arithmetic should ever have in mind the 
fact that the subject is of great practical value and that the 
pupil will^have an immediate need for a knowledge of it 
in every walk of life. As necessary preparation for the 
teacher the following is suggested : 

( 1 ) All possible arithmetical knowledge. 

(2) An accurate knowledge of the relative value of prob- 
lems and puzzles. 

(3) A clear conception of the aims of the author of the 
text-book used. 

(4) Such a knowledge of the uses of arithmetic as will 
enable him to know what subjects in the book should be 
either omitted or postponed until the more useful subjects 
have been mastered. 

( 5 ) A knowledge of what problems are of greatest worth. 

(6) An accurate knowledge of the problems occurring 
in the business circles of the community where the school 
is located, and 



42 



( 7 ) To thoroughly understand that a ' ' Rule ' ' should 
be derived from experience in solving a problem, and that 
it should not be first committed to memory and then used 
as a means of " finding the answer." 

(8) To know how to make charts that will help in the 
work, and not only to know lioxv to make them but to ac- 
tually make them and use them. 

The following order of teaching the different subjects 
treated in the usual arithmetics is suggested as the best to 
be followed so as to impart the greatest amount of knowl- 
edge in the short time the pupils spend in our schools: 

1. The four fundamental processes of addition, subtrac- 
tion, multiplication and division. 

2. Common fractions. 

3. Decimal fractions. 

4. United States currency. 

5. Compound quantities. 

6. Percentage. 

7. Interest. 

8. Analysis. 

In following the above order it will be necessary to skip 
much of the text in the book but this may be 4one with- 
out injury to the class and then those subjects which have 
been postponed may be taken up after the more important 
subjects are thoroughly understood. 

,"THK FOUR FUNDAMKNTAI. RUI^FS." 

It will be impossible in this manual to present an ex- 
tended discussion of the many excellent devices and meth- 
ods employed by the best teachers of arithmetic. 

Addition. A careful study of objects should precede 
the use of figures. After addition has been studied objec- 
tively, make a chart containing the following combina- 
tions: 



43 



2175J61246338 
3524139514131 



424865 

2 I 3 2 I 3 


472572 
412536 


65264 

68978 


67543 
58979 


48587 
987-69 


39789 
89796 



This chart should be made on a large piece of manilla 
paper and fastened to the wall and the children should be 
taught to know the sum of each group at sight as the 
teacher points to it. 

Give a great many examples like these for slate work. 

Give longer columns to the higher classes. There should 
be frequent drill in addition and children should never be 
allffwed to "count on their fingers." Aim at accuracy- 
first, and then rapidity. 

In adding a column of figures like the one here given 7 
do not let pupils say : ' ' Two and six are eight, and 8 
eight and five are thirteen, and thirteen and four are 3 
seventeen, and seventeen and three are twenty, and 4 
twenty and eight are twenty-eight, and twenty-eight 5 
and seven are thirty-five." Insist upon their adding 6 
in this way: Two, eight, thirteen, seventeen, etc. 2 

Sprague's Rapid Addition, price 10 cents, publish- — 
ed by Ginn & Co., will help any teacher. ' 

Subtraction. — Three classes of problems occur. 

1. I had 9 cents and spent 3 cents. How many did I 
then have ? This problem involves the use of 9 objects of 
the same kind and is readily understood by any child who 
knows that 9 cents is the sum of 6 cents and 3- cents. 

2. I had 9 cents and John had 3 cents, how many cents 
did I have more than John ? This problem involves the 
use of 12 objects of the same kind. 



44 



3- A farmer had 9 horses and 3 mules. How many more 
horses than mules did he have ? This problem involves 
the use of 12 objects of different kinds. The iirst of the 
above should be taught thoroughly before the others are 
studied. The process of subtraction is soon understood 
and easily mastered by the pupils. The process of "bor- 
rowing and carrying' ' is too often so very much explained 
as to become difficult to understand. 

Multiplication. — Great care should be used in teaching 
the ' ' thought ' ' of multiplication. Very frequently teach- 
ers begin the subject by requiring the pupil to commit to 
memory a part or all of the table by a certain time. Of 
course it must be finally committed to memory, but the 
' ' thought ' ' should be taught first and then the process. 

We here have , three groups of two each or 

"three times two = six. Substitute X for "times" aind 
we may write it 3 X 2=6. Make this plain by having pupils 
write on slates figures for .•..•. = ,*; \\ tl = • 
as 2X3 = 6, 3X4 = 12. 

Next require pupils to eqpress with figures in the same 
way such examples as 

• • • • •_• •■• •_• 

• • •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •*• •'• •*•• 

Give a great many examples in multiplication, but be 
sure to have many short problems rather than a few long 
ones. Such an example as, 

7897643 
298764 



• 31580572 
47395858 
etc., are too long and tedious for real profit. 

A few bhort problems are far more valuable than one 
like the above. 

Division. — A few intelligent remarks by the teacher 
will make division very simple for those who know the 
multiplication table. Show the meaning of such expres- 
sions as 12-7-3=4. Illustrate by drawing 

and dividing them into groups of three, as 

Show that the quotient 4 and the dividend 12 are equal, 



45 



the one being four threes and the other being twelve ones, 
lyong division should be taught, as ever3^one does, just 
after short division. Remember that the operation is a 
difficult one to perform and hence require pupils to go 
slowly. 

Fractions. — The size of this manual will not admit of 
any extended outline of a treatment of fractions. They 
should be taught thoroughly rather than rapidly, and the 
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of frac- 
tions should be taught by means of objects. Each prin- 
ciple should be learned from objects. In fact, all arith- 
metic should be taught from objects, and in no other way. 

Pupils should be required to explain each problem in 
correct English, and a proper tone of voice. Insist upon 
neat work and plain figures. Occaisionally give exercises 
in such multiplication as 9876 

7435 and require the figures of 
the product to be written in straight columns. Dictate 
many long columns to advanced classes for addition and 
require neat work. 

The ' ' Four Fundamental Rules ' ' are employed every 
day in business and pupils should receive careful instruc- 
tion in them. Time spent upon Greatest Comrnon Factor, 
Least Common Multiple and Allegation is, practically, 
time lost. ' # t 



PHYSIOLOOY AJfD HYGIENE' 

Instruction in these subjects is prescribed by the school 
law, as are the text-books to be used. The study of the 
physiological effects of alcohol and narcotics is important, 
but it is a mistake and a perversion to subordinate the 
whole science of physiology to it. The best practical re- 
sults for the pupil should be expected, not from exagger- 
ated accounts and flaming pictures of abnormal condi- 
tions, but from a clear comprehension of the normal proc- 
esses that go forward in the body. The text-book ought 
to be supplemented by demonstrations whenever possible. 



46 



For example, the relations of the bones to one another, 
the different kinds of joints and levers, may be illustrated 
by a portion of the skeletons of other animals; so also the 
structure of the muscles, the internal organs, the heart, 
lungs, kidneys, etc., may be demonstrated upon speci- 
mens to be had b}^ keeping an e3^e open for the opportu- 
nities which the kitchen offers. 

te;ache:r's coursb^. 

The teacher will find almost indispensable for his pri- 
vate study some such book as Martin's Human Body, 
Briefer Course (Henry Holt & Co., $1.20). Most valu- 
able directions for practical demonstrations are given in 
the appendixes to a number of the chapters. If a more 
elaborate reference book is desired, Kirke's Handbook of 
Physiology (Blakiston, Son & Co., Philadelphia, 14th 
edition, I3), is recommended. 



BOTANY. 



The study of plants ought to begin early in the school 
life of the child. It occupies those two faculties which 
are the first to assert themselves in development, — observa- 
tion and memory, — and the teacher cannot afford to violate 
the order of nature. 

The material for the study is everywhere abundant, 
costs nothing, is easily handled and attractive, and, con- 
trary to the coJimon opinion, may be had all the year 
round. This is important, because without this material 
botany counts for nothing. There can be no profitable 
stud}^ of plants apart from the plants themselves. Indeed, 
mere book knowledge is here not only worthless, but posi- 
tively harmful. Instead of feeding, it dwarfs the very 
faculty for the sake of which botany stands in the school 
course. Accordingl)'-, no lessoii should be given without 
the material actually in hand to illustrate it, particularly 
in the case of pupils beginning the study. 



Tilt school law (Ices nol require instruction in botany, 
but tilt- inlroduction of it into the course will not to any 
extent displace what is prescribed. On the contrary, it 
will give the teacher an opportunity to quicken the minds 
and enli\en the energies of the whole school, so that when 
the brief lesson here suggested is over, the pupils will 
turn refreshed to their other work. 

First, as to the time of the lesson. It need not occupy 
more than five minutes, say, three times a week, though 
the material in hand ma}- warrant an extension beyond 
this limit. Let it be taken up whenever the circumstances 
of the day seem to call for it. An occasional excursion 
under the guidance of the teacher wiil be useful. It may 
fall at the midday recess or on Saturda}-, according to the 
distance to be covered. 

The lesson itself will be conducted in a variety of ways 
by the alert teacher. The following suggestions are off- 
ered to indicate the kind of work which may be under- 
taken profitably and the general way in which it ought to 
be done. Turn the entire school for the time into one 
class. Let there be no text-book. Direct attention to the 
specimen in hand by questions, such as. What is it? Where 
does it grow? What is it good for, etc. ? Suppose the plant 
to be a mushroom gathered on the wa}- to school. By ques- 
tioning, guide the observation of the pupils to the chief 
features in the structure of the plant and give the names 
( the common names whenever possible ) of these features. 
Cut the cap from the stem and lay it gills down on a piece 
of paper with some such statement as ' ' We shall see to- 
morrow what will happen." The spores will be found to 
have fallen from the gills in radial ridges on the paper, 
when the cap is lifted carefully. There may follow^ com- 
ment on the numlK-r of the spores, their minute size, their 
di>ipersal by the wind, and their work in making new 
])lants when they fall in proper places. The spores from 
a mushroom which bears on the underside many tubes 
instead of gills may be collected in the same way. They 
will fall out of the tubes in little heaps. In a favorable 
season the pupils may be asked to bring as many different 



48 



kinds of mushrooms to the school as they can. find, with 
the vSuggestion that the situation in which they grow be 
noted. There may follow a lesson on moulds, specimens 
of which are to be found on deca3dng fruit, etc. In some 
two or three lessons the pupils will have discovered the 
great group of the fungi. The same method may be pur- 
sued with a moss, a fern, and a number of flowering 
plants. Germinating beans and other seeds in wet sand, 
and noting the stages of their growth, will be simple and 
profitable. There §hould be lessons on leaves, on buds, 
on the storage of food, on flowers and insects, and on 
fruits. 

TEACHER'S COURSE. 

The more thoroughly at home in the plant world the 
teacher is, the more effective will the instruction in botany 
be. But this work may be taken up on a much slighter 
basis of knowledge than would appear to be necessary, 
provided the preparation for the particular lesson is gen- 
uine and full. Sufficient preparation for the work here 
suggested may be made by the study of the following- 
books: Bergen's Elements of Botany (Ginn & Co., $i.io) 
and Spalding's Introduction to Botany (D. C. Heath & 
Co., $i.oo). These books supplement one another and 
may be mastered wdthout a teacher. Goodale's little book 
Concerning a Few Common Plants (Heath's Guides for 
Science Teaching, 20C.) is strongly recommended. Wil- 
son's Nature Stud)^ (Macmillan Co., 90c.) is a teacher's 
manual and abounds in helpful suggestions. Bailey's 
lycssons with Plants (Macmillan Co., |t.io) will prove 
itself an invaluable companion. Geddes' Chapters in 
Modern Botany (Scribner's Sons, I1.25), presents the 
wider aspects of the science and will give the teacher a 
rich fund of illustrative material. If a microscope is 
available, so much the better ; but it is not absolutely 
necessary. 



49 

SCH00L.K0031 SUGGESTIONS. 

Have few rules and never make a rule unless you need 
it. A good teacher is seldom troubled with disorder. 

On the first day of school— and every day of school— be 
in the room ready to receive the pupils. Organize at once 
and endeavor to give each pupil something to do as soon 
as possible. Do not talk your pupils into disorder by 
telling what "nice boys and girls " you wish them to be, 
or by boasting that your last school was the best you ever 
had and that you don'-t see why your present one may not 
even surpass it. Stop talking and go to teaching. 

The teacher should do all in his power to prevent disorder 

and to this end he should have scholarship ; 
Should carefully prepare each lesson, neglecting not even 

the lowest reading class ; 
Should try to learn more and more about teaching year 

by year ; 
Should know where the lesson begins and not lose time 

asking the question, "Where does the lesson begin 

today?" 
Should remember that too much talk means too little 

teach ; 
Should not teach in a loud tone of voice ; 
Should not teach unless the pupils are quiet. 

CARE OF SCHOOI.-ROOM. 

The school-room should be kept " neat and clean " at 
all times. The teacher who sweeps the floor will find vol- 
unteers among his pupils eager to do the sweeping, and 
when pupils undertake the care of the school -room less 
ink will be spilled, less paper thrown on the floor, and 
less mud brought in on the shoes. With little effort a 
wood box may be secured and the general appearance of 
the floor greatly improved by not having wood piled up 
near the stove. 

Before leaving the school-room at the close of the day 
erase all work on the blackboard and put everything in 
readiness for the next day's work. 



50 



Too much cannot be said about the importance of keep- 
ing the school-room " neat and clean." Dirty floors and 
window panes indicate a careless teacher. The teacher 
who likes a neat, tidy school-room will find a way to keep 
it so. One who is willing to teach where the window 
panes are dirty, the floor unswept, and the walls unsightly, 
should not be employed to teach our youth. 

RECESS. 

Children should be under the teacher's supervision at 
recess. Many a serious quarrel has begun in play at recess 
and could have been prevented had the teacher been on 
the play-ground. When the recess signal is given pupils 
should not be allowed to rush from the school-room laugh- 
ing and talking. The teacher should have the pupils rise 
and march from the building in as perfect order as possi- 
ble. They should return to the school-room in the same 
manner after recess. Too often at recess, or when the 
school is dismissed, pupils are allowed to leave the room 
in noise and confusion. When they march from the room 
require them to form in line in the yard and wait until a 
signal from you before they *' break ranks." 

PUNISHMENTS. 

The best teachers resort to punishments less and less the 
longer they teach. It savors of the brute when a teacher 
boasts of his having " conquered a boy " by the infliction 
of corporal punishment. All punishment, however, is not 
corporal punishment, and it is a fact that the best teachers 
must punish occasionally. It is impossible to state how 
and for what punishment, shall be inflicted. The teacher's 
desire should be not so much to find out a penalty for, but 
rather a preventive of bad conduct. 

The best preventive is tact. Tact is inborn, and yet it 
may be made more and more effective if the teacher strives 
to gain knowledge and skill by studying the ways of suc- 
cessful teachers and attending teachers' meetings of all 
kinds. 

The following books are very helpful : Hughes' Mis- 
takes in Teaching ; Hughes' How to Keep Order. 



51 



THE SCHOOL MUSEUM. 

As a means of stimulating and guiding the observing 
powers, the gathering of natural objects in the vicinity of 
the school is entitled to the first consideration. lyct it be 
understood that anything, whether common or uncom- 
mon, will be acceptable, so that the collection will stand 
as a sort of epitome of the school district. 

There are the different kinds of rocks and minerals, 
which should be reduced to approximately uniform size, 
say, three inches in diameter ; the different kinds of soil, 
which may be put in small bottles ; mosses, lichens, ferns, 
a nd flowering plants, which may be dried and pressed and 
fastened to stiff paper of uniform size ; likewise many 
forms of animal life and many specimens of the work of 
animals. 

A few simple shelves will suffice to receive the material, 
which ought to be grouped ' ' with the assistance ' ' of the 
pupils ; and here the teacher has an excellent opportunity 
of training the judgment, which is one of the chief advan- 
tages of nature study. Let each specimen be named, if 
possible, on a label, together with its locality and collector. 

It will be necessary to select typical specimens from the 
number of duplicates brought in, though it is more impor- 
tant to have all the pupils represented in the museum than 
to save space on the shelves. 

The primary object sought in such a museum is, not the 
possession of the specimens, but the gathering of them by 
the pupils. The teacher will, therefore, feel no embar- 
rassment because of his inadequate, means either of dis- 
playing or of preserving them. He will seek to have each 
generation of pupils contribute to the collection, and so 
replace lost or deteriorated material, as well as enlarge the 
number of specimens. 



r^o, 



THE CARE OF THE EYES OF SCHOOL CHILDREJf. 



RICHARD H. I.EWIS, M. D., RA^KIGH, N. C, IN NORTH 
CAROI^INA JOURNAI, OF EDUCATION. 



Of all the special senses, that of sight is by far the most 
important to the welfare of the individual, and, in general 
estimation, to his happiness as well. The preservation, 
therefore, of this most ptecious sense in its perfection 
should receive thoughtful attention from all those who 
are in any way responsible for the care and management 
of their fellow beings. Inasmuch as the teacher has the 
immediate oversight and control of nearly the entire popu- 
lation for a large part of the time during that period of 
life when the eye is most liable to damage from preventa- 
ble causes, which causes are incidental to the work done 
under his supervision, it is manifest that upon him, above 
all others, rests this responsibility. The object of this 
paper is to make as plain as may be possible in dealing 
with a technical subject how he can best perform his duty 
in this respect. In order to have an intelligent apprecia- 
tion of the best method of caring for an organ it is neces- 
sary to have some idea of its structure and workings, or 
functions, and so I shall lay the foundation for the prac- 
tical part that is to follow by giving, as simply as possible, 
the essential features of the e5'e as the organ of vision. 

The eye is, roughlj- speaking, a globe a trifle less, as a 
rule, than an inch in diameter, the walls of which are 
composed of three laj^ers lying upon one another like 
those of an onion, and the cavity of which is filled with 
three perfectly transparent fluids or humors. The outer- 
most of the three coats is called the sclerotic, from a Greek 
word meaning hard. It is white, opaque and very tough. 
It is the skeleton of the eye and preserves its shape, at the 
same time, by its strength and toughness, protecting from 
injury the extremely delicate structure it encloses. It is 
" the white of the eye." This white coat does not cover 
the entire ball, but in front there is an opening equal in 



53 



in area to about one-sixth of the whole surface. This 
opening is filled in with a transparent structure known as 
the cornea, which is set in the white coat very much like 
a watch crystal is set in its rim. The middle coat, the 
choroid, is composed chiefly of blood vessels for nourish _ 
ing the other structures, and a kind of dark pigment, 
which is an element in the visual process. Intimately 
connected with the choroid, though an entirely different 
structure, is the iris (rainbow), the beautiful, many col- 
ored circular curtain, with a round opening near its cen- 
ter, the pupil, which hangs suspended from the junction 
of the sclerotic and cornea. The pupil, or window through 
which we see, varies in size according to the amount of 
light, automatically regulating the amount that falls upon 
the sensitive retina, which is the innermost and most im- 
portant of the three coats. The retina is an extremely 
delicate and complex structure, and is far excellence the 
organ of vision. It may be compared to the telegraph 
instrument which is connected with the central office, the 
brain, by means of the fibres of the optic nerve, the con- 
ducting wires. 

Of the three humors filling the hollow of the ball, the 
only one of practical interest to us in this connection is 
the crystalline. This is an extremely elastic semi-solid 
enclosed in a little sac or bag, the capsule. Of the shape 
of a double convex lens, it hangs suspended just behind 
the iris, touching it at the pupillary border. Surrounding 
the edge of the lens is a circular muscle, the ciliary, or 
muscle of accommodation, which regulates the amount of 
the convexity of the lens, thereby adjusting its focus of 
light from objects at different distances. 

The eye is moved in different directions — up, down, out, 
in — by four recti, or straight muscles, and rotated on its 
axis by two oblique. Of these, only the internal recti, 
which converge the two eyes on near objects, as in read- 
ing, etc., are of special interest to us. 

Optically considered, the eye is admirably illustrated by 
the camera of the photographer, with which many of my 
readers are doubtless familiar. The double convex lens 



54 



which focuses the light from the[object to be photographed, 
thereby making a distinct picture of it on the sensitive 
plate, just as the lens of the eye does upon the retina ; the 
perforated disc, the iris; the sensitive plate, the retina; 
and the adjusting screw which regulates the focus, the 
muscle of accommodation. In the camera, when the 
ground-glass plate at the back, on which the operator 
brings out a clear and sharply defined image of the object 
to be photographed before he substitutes for it the plate 
covered with chemicals sensitive to light, is out of focus — 
too near to or too far from the lens — thereby blurring the 
image, he changes its position by turning' the adjusting 
screw until the plate is precisely at the focus. In the eye, 
the distance between the lens and the retina is fixed, and 
the latter cannot be moved to and fro to find the focus, so 
another method must be employed. That method con - 
sists in a change in the convexity of the crystalline lens, 
which, owing to the optical fact that the more convex a 
lens the shorter its focus, and vice versa ^ accomplishes 
the same end by putting the focus exactly on the retina. 
This is done by the varying contractions and relaxations 
of the ciliary muscle which thus accommodates or adjusts 
the eye. 

The essential difference between the two methods, as 
bearing on our subject, is that in the one case it is a me- 
chanical process, while in the other it is a vital one. Brass 
and steel never get tired but muscles always do, if over- 
worked. And right here is the trouble in most weak eyes — 
the overstraining from one cause or another of this little 
muscle of accommodation. Let us see how it can be over- 
strained. In the normal eye, the retina is exactly at the 
focus of parallel rays of light, which is synonomous with 
rays of light from distant objects. So that when we look 
at distant objects the muscle of accommodation and those 
of convergence, the internal straight muscles of the two 
eyes, are completely relaxed — at rest — just as the muscles 
of our body are when we are lying down — we see without 
effort. The nearer the object is brought to the eye the 
more divergent are the rays of light, the farther from the 



55 



lens and, therefore, the farther behind the retina, whose 
position is fixed, is the focus, and the greater the effort 
required of the muscle of accommodation, to sufficiently 
increase the convexity of the lens and shorten the focus 
up to the retina and make a distinct picture of the object, 
until, finally, the limit of the muscle's power is reached, 
and we can no longer see clearly. The nearer, also, the 
object the greater the effort required of the muscles pf 
convergence, which act ^art passti with the muscles of 
accommodation, to keep both eyes fixed on the object, 
and they, too, are strained by too close an approximation 
of the object. Try reading a few minutes at the very 
nearest point you can see distinctly, and you will obtain a 
practical demonstration of eye-strain. But all eyes are 
not normal. Some are too short — the far-sighted eye — 
and the focus for all rays is behind the retina, and even 
distant vision requires an accommodation effort. Some 
are too long — the near-sighted eye — in which a clear image 
can be made on the retina only by bringing the object 
sufficiently near, by making the rays sufficiently divergent 
to put the focus on the retina. Then there are other eyes 
whose curvatures are irregular, in which lines at right 
angles to each other can never be brought to a focus on 
the retina at the same time. When the horizontal lines 
of the object, for example, are distinct the vertical are 
blurred, and when the eye is adjusted for the vertical, the 
horizontal become correspondingly indistinct. Conse- 
quently, such an eye can never, through any inherent 
power of its own, see clearly any object, either far or near. 
This error is called astigmatism, and is the most trouble- 
some and annoying of all, being an extremely common 
cause of headache and other nervous symptoms. 

From what has been said, it is clear that the muscle of 
accommodation is strained in the normal eye if the book 
is held too close; that in the far-sighted eye this strain is 
still greater, because such an eye has to use a part of its 
adjusting power for distance, and therefore has less than 
the normal amount of power of adjustment for near ob- 
jects in proportion to the degree of the error — the short- 



56 



ness of the eye from before backward; that in the near- 
sighted eye the muscles of convergence are strained, owing 
to the necessity for approximating the object too near; 
and the astigmatic eye, from the attempt of the little 
muscle, on all occasions, to do two things at the same 
time, or as nearly at the same as possible. Operating 
under such unfavorable conditions, the astigmatic eye is 
easily fatigued by continuous work of any kind, as in 
sight- seeing, reading or sewing. 

Having paved the way for an intelligent appreciation of 
it, we are now prepared for the statement that the main 
thing in the practical care of the eyes of school children 
is to prevent too close an approximation of the book to 
the eye. It should be held at least ten inches from the 
eye. How is this to be done ? By removing the causes of 
it. What are the causes ? ( 1 ) Insufficient light. Every 
one knows that in a dim light we must hold a small object 
closer to the eye than in a bright light. (2 ) Small or bad 
print. (3' Faulty arrangement of seats and desks — such 
a proportion between the heights of the two as to make 
the desk relatively too high, thereby pushing the book 
up under the child's nose, no matter how erect he may 
sit. Seats without proper backs, compelling the child for 
want of support to rest himself by leaning on the desk. 
(4) Improper position in writing, which not only brings 
the paper too close to the eyes, but puts a further strain 
upon the external muscles, which direct and fix the eyes 
upon the object, by causing the writer to look obliquely 
instead of straight ahead and slightly downward — the 
natural direction. On this account, as well as because an 
erect position of the body is a necessity — not to mention 
other advantages — the vertical system of writing is to be 
highly commended. The above enumerated causes act 
upon all eyes, but with most effect upon defective eyes, 
which see with more or less difficulty, at best. 

What is the effect of this strain upon the eyes? When- 
ever any organ is required to do an unusual amount of 
work, nature provides the extra power needed by sending 
more blood to it. So the over-strained eye is in a state of 



57 

congestion, and often aches from the pressure of the blood. 
But the discomfort is not the greatest trouble. The nutri- 
tion of the eye is impaired by the irregularity in the cir- 
culation, the retina becomes irritable and sensitive, and 
often the other coats become softened and the ball being 
squeezed laterally by the excessive convergence, these 
coats gradually give way behind, and the ball becomes 
elongated. 

It is in this way near-sightedness originates and is in- 
creased in degree. Children are not born near-sighted, 
but become so in the early years of their school life when 
their tissues, including, of course, those of the eye, are 
soft and plastic. Investigations on this line show that the 
proportion of near sighted in some of the large schools, 
particularly in Germany, varies from 1 or 2 per cent, in 
the first grade, to 60 per cent, or more in the highest. The 
variation is not usually so great, but there is a marked 
increase as school life progresses. " The darker the school 
houses the greater the percentage of near-sighted. The 
popular idea, that near-sighted eyes are strong eyes is an 
error; they are often weak, and not infrequently diseased — 
blindness occasionally being the final result in the worst 
forms. 

Strain of any kind can be better borne by the strong 
and vigorous than by the feeble and delicate, and it should 
be kept in mind that anything that lowers the vital pow- 
ers will react unfavorably upon the eye, as well as upon 
the other organs of the body. Nothing is more important 
to a proper performance of the vital processes than a full 
supply of ox3^gen, plenty of fresh air. Children suffer 
greatly in this respect in our over-crowded school-rooms 
heated by a close stove. So, in caring for the eyes, do 
not forget the proper ventilation of the school- room. 

But most important of all to the eye is the proper light- 
ing of the school-room. The aggregate amotint of window 
space should not be less than 25 per cent, of the floor 
space; 33 j^ would be better. The windows should be 
high, reaching nearly to the ceiling, and located on the 
left side and behind, the wall in front of the pupils being 
always without openings — a dead wall. 



58 



In conclusion, I beg to suggest to all teachers the ad- 
visability of testing* both the sight and hearing of each 
pupil upon admission, assigning those with defective sight 
to the seats nearest the windows, and those with defective 
hearing to the seats nearest the teacher. By doing this 
many a child would not only be enabled to do better 
work, but would also be saved the pain caused by unjust 
and undeserved reproaches. 



CARE OF THE TEETH, 

The; N. C. State; Board oif De;ntai, Examine;rs, 
pre;side:nt's office, 

Rai^fiGh, N. C, March 4, 1898. 
To Instructors in the Public Schools: 

In consideration of the marked deterioration of the 
human teeth, so clearly demonstrated by the experience 
of all practitioners of dental surgery, the Dental Society 
of North Carolina has requested the Board of Dental Ex- 
aminers to invite your attention to this most important 
subject, and to ask that you urge upon parents and pupils 
the great necessity for intelligent care of the teeth. 

In obedience to this request we submit the following: 

First. The premature loss of the teeth, and the disor- 
ders incident to decayed and broken teeth, are misfortunes 
of the gravest character, resulting not only in the disfig- 
uration of the mouth and face, but absolutely destroying 
health. 

Second. The critical period is from the third to the six- 
teenth year. The want of attention to the temporary, or 
shedding teeth, is fraught with great danger to the health 
of the child, and may be an incalculable injury to the 
permanent, or second set. 



*The State Board of Health has had it in mind to distribute test 
types with instructions to all our schools, but the appropriation has 
been too small to permit the expenditure'necessary. 



59 



Third. At an earl}^ age children easily contract habits 
which may be difficult to correct; particularly is this true 
of the habit of swallowing food without proper mastica- 
tion, a condition which generally results from the inability 
to chew comfortably. Thus a mass of food is thrown into 
the stomach, unmasticated, and unmixed with saliva, in 
which condition it ferments, and half of its nutritive prop- 
erties are lost. Indigestion and chronic dyspepsia often 
result. Faulty nutrition, arising from the want of proper 
assimilation of food, prevents a healthy mental and physi- 
cal growth and development. 

Fourth. To prevent the decay and premature loss of 
teeth the simplest and most effective treatment is a thor- 
ough use of the brush, with a well prepared dentrifice, at 
least twice daily — in the morning, and at night before 
retiring. Those who cannot afford a dentifice, prescribed 
by some competent dentist, will find English Precipitated 
Chalk answers well for the purpose indicated, at a trifling 
cost. 

Fifth. Parents should direct and encourage their chil- 
dren to cleanse their mouths and dislodge all particles of 
food after each meal. Every child between two and three 
years of age should be placed under the charge of a com- 
petent dental surgeon, in order that even the decay of the 
temporary teeth may be treated, and irregularities may be 
prevented. 

V. E. Turner, D. D. S., President, 
R. H. Jones, D. D. S., Secretary, 
Thos. M. Hunter, J3. D. S., 
J. E. Matthews, D. D. S., 
Sid. p. Hii,3;iard, D. D. S., 
C. A. BI.AND, D. D. S., 

Members of Examining Board, 

I heartily endorse this letter and trust that our public 
school teachers will give this important subject the time 
and consideration it deserves. C. H. Mebane, 

Suft. Public l7istruction N. C. 



60 

LIFE CERTIFICATES. 

The following, section 3, chapter 1O8, laws of 1S97, is 
published here for the benefit of teachers who do not wish 
to be troubled with the county examination each year. 
The certificate, as is shown in this section, entitles the 
holder to teach in any county in North Carolina without 
examination by the County Supervisor: 

'* The State Board of School Examiners shall have power 
to grant first-grade life certificates, which may be used in 
any county in the State, and shall furnish to the public, 
through the several county supervisors, at ieast one month 
before the regular annual county examination of teachers, 
full information as to the nature and character of the 
requirements for such first-grade life certificates; it shall 
annually prepare and furnish to the several county super- 
visors a set of examination questions covering subjects 
required by law to be taught in the public schools of the 
State, which shall be submitted at the regular annual 
county examination of teachers in July to all applicants 
for a first-grade life certificate, under such rules and regu- 
lations as the State Board of School Examiners may pre- 
scribe. The State Board of School Examiners shall exam- 
ine and grade the papers of all applicants for a first-gjade 
life certificate, and shall issue said certificate to such 
applicants as are properly qualified and justly entitled 
thereto, and all examination papers of applicants to whom 
first-grade life certificates shall have been granted under 
this act shall be kept on file in the office of the State 
Superintendent *of Public Instruction: Provided^ that 
each applicant for a first-grade life certificate shall pay in 
advance to the county supervisor the sum of five dollars, 
which shall be reported to the county board of education, 
and paid into the general school fund of the county: Pro- 
vided further, that every first-grade life certificate, to 
continue valid and operative, shall be renewed by the 
State Board of School Examiners every five years, and 
before said board shall renew said certificate it shall be 
accompanied with an affidavit of the teacher holding said 
certificate that he or she has been actually engaged in 
teaching school since receiving said certificate, or since 
its last renewal, and no charge shall be made for' such 
renewal," 



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